Table 1 A list of animal models of DR that are based on various species from zebrafish to monkeys

High glucose treatment

Alternate immersing in glucose/water solution

Type 1

- Thinning of IPL and INL

[38, 39]

- Degeneration of PL

- BM thickening in retinal capillaries

STZ

Intraperitoneal injection of STZ

Type 1

- Thinning of IPL and PL

[46]

Hypoxia

Immersing in hypoxic chamber (10%)

N/A

- New vascular branches and sprouts

[51, 52]

STZ

Intraperitoneal injection of STZ

Type 1

- BM thickening in retinal capillaries

[29, 35, 41–45, 53]

- Apoptosis of neuronal cells in GCL

- Loss of pericytes in retinal capillaries

- Loss of amacrine cells in INL

- Increased vascular permeability

db/db mice

Spontaneous hyperglycemia

Type 2

- BM thickening in retinal capillaries

[54–59]

- Loss of pericytes

- Apoptosis of neuroretinal cells

- Increased vascular permeability

Non-obese diabetic mice

Spontaneous hyperglycemia

Type 1

- Apoptosis of ganglion cells in GCL

[61, 62]

- Abnormal focal vascular proliferation

Akita mice

Spontaneous hyperglycemia

Type 1

- Apoptosis of neuronal cells in GCL

[45, 63, 64]

- Loss of amacrine cells in INL

- Acellular capillaries

- Loss of pericytes

- Thinning of IPL and INL

- Increased vascular permeability

- Microaneurysm formation

- New vessels in OPL

Zucker diabetic fatty rats

Spontaneous hyperglycemia

Type 2

- BM thickening in retinal capillaries

[65–67]

- Loss of ECs and pericytes

- Acellular capillaries

Otsuka Long-Evans Tokushima fatty rats

Spontaneous hyperglycemia

Type 2

- BM thickening in retinal capillaries

[68, 69, 71]

- Microaneurysm formation

- Thinning of INL and PL

Goto-Kakizaki rats

Spontaneous hyperglycemia

Type 2

- Apoptosis of ECs

[72–74]

- Decreased retinal circulation

Kimba mice

Transgenic overexpression of VEGF₁₆₅ gene

N/A

- Increased vascular permeability

[77, 78]

- Retinal neovascularization

OIR

Exposure to hyperoxia during early postnatal periods

N/A

- Increased vascular permeability

[47–49, 79]

- Retinal neovascularization

Akimba mice

Crossing Akita mice with Kimba mice

Type 1

- Thinning of PL

[80]

- Loss of ganglion cells in GCL

- Capillary nonperfusion

- Retinal neovascularization

Diabetic Torii rats

Spontaneous hyperglycemia

Type 2

- Large retinal folds mimicking TRD

[81–83]

- Massive hemorrhage in A/C

- Acellular capillaries

- Loss of pericytes

Galactose-fed dogs

Feeding a 30% galactose diet

Type 2

- Acellular capillaries

[85, 86]

- Microaneurysm formation

- Intraretinal hemorrhage

- NVD

OIR

Exposure to hyperoxia during early postnatal periods

N/A

- Retinal neovascularization

[50, 87]

- Peripheral retinal ischemia

- Vitreous hemorrhage

- Tractional retinal folds

Spontaneously diabetic

Spontaneous hyperglycemia

Type 2

- IRMA

[88, 89]

- Microaneurysm formation

- Retinal hemorrhage