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Table 1 Drugs/dietary constituents with beneficial effects against FFAs-induced ED. This table shows the reported dietary nutrients/drugs that have been shown to be effective against FFAs-induced ED, and the potential mechanisms highlighted in these studies. Two differently-colored texts in the table have been used to highlight different studies on the same drug or the use of more than one study model used within the same article

From: Role of free fatty acids in endothelial dysfunction

Drug/dietary constituent

Effects/relevant mechanisms

Nature of the study

ω-3 PUFAs (EPA)

AMPK/eNOS pathway ↑

In vitro study on primary HUVECs [18]

iNOS ↓

EC apoptosis, Caspase-3,

p53/MAPK, Bax ↓

NADPH oxidase/ROS ↓

NF-κB activation ↓

Astragalus membranaceus

NO ↑

Ex vivo study on rat aortic rings [134, 141]

Endothelium-dependent

vasodilation ↑

NF-κB ↓

Cyanidin-3-O-glucoside

Oxidative stress ↓

In vitro study on primary HUVECs [131]

NF-κB activation and adhesion

molecules ↓

Nrf2/EpRE pathway ↑

Dihydropyridine calcium channel blockers (Nifedipine and amlodipine)

Forearm blood flow responses to

Clinical trial [128]

ACh ↑

Leucocyte activation ↓

Oxidative stress ↓

In vitro monocytic cells [128]

NF-κB ↓

TNF-α, IL-6 ↓

In vitro study on HUVECs [131]

IKKβ/NF-κβ phosphorylation ↓

IRS-1 phosphorylation ↓

NO production ↑

L-carnitine

Endothelium-dependent leg blood flow ↑

Clinical trial [107]

Losartan

Vasodilation ↑

Clinical study [139]

eNOS activity ↑

IRS-1 phosphorylation ↓

Study on rats [139]

Olive oil polyphenols

eNOS activity ↑

In vitro study on ECV304 cells [102]

ET-1 ↓

Perindopril

Vasodilation ↑

Clinical study [141]

Salidroside

eNOS activation, NO production ↑

In vivo study on HFD-fed ApoE−/−mice [106]

AMPK/PI3K/Akt/eNOS pathway,

Cellular AMP/ATP ratio ↑

Atherosclerotic lesion ↓

Withaferin A

ROS, TNF-α, IL-6 ↓

In vitro study on primary HUVECs [129]

IKKβ/NF-κβ phosphorylation ↓

IRS-1 phosphorylation ↓

PI3K signaling ↑

ET-1, PAI-1 ↓

Ex vivo study on rat aortic rings [129]

Endothelium-mediated vasodilation ↑