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Fig. 1 | Journal of Biomedical Science

Fig. 1

From: Toll-like receptors in lupus nephritis

Fig. 1

Toll-like receptor (TLR) signalling pathways. TLR1, TLR2, TLR4, TLR5, TLR6, TLR11, TLR12 as homo or heterodimers bind to their respective ligands at the cell surface, whereas TLR3, TLR7/TLR8, TLR9, and TLR13 sense nucleic acids in endosomes. TLR4 localizes at both the plasma membrane and the endosomes. The Toll–IL-1-resistence (TIR) domains of TLRs-dimers bind TIR domain-containing adaptor proteins (either myeloid differentiation primary-response protein 88 (MYD88), or TIR domain-containing adaptor protein inducing IFNβ (TRIF) and TRIF-related adaptor molecule (TRAM)). Downstream signalling pathways of TLRs involve IL-1R-associated kinases (IRAKs), IκB kinase -alpha, beta, gamma and epsilon (IKK αβγε-) and the adaptor molecules TNF receptor-associated factors (TRAFs). These protein complexes activate p50 and p65, as well as various transcription factors such as interferon-regulatory factors (IRFs) and activator protein 1 (AP1). TLR signalling leads to the induction of pro-inflammatory cytokines or the induction of type I interferon (IFN)

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