Fig. 1

Functional roles of ubiquitin ligases in regulating autophagy. Summary of the proteins acting in the initiation (a), autophagosome biogenesis (b), and autophagosome maturation (c) steps of the autophagic process that are subjected to ubiquitination by various E3 ligases. The ubiquitin chain types and the effect of ubiquitination on autophagy (promotion or inhibition) are indicated