Fig. 4From: Pathophysiological implications of hypoxia in human diseasesSchematic diagram of the hypoxic process linked to kidney diseases. During the development of CKD, vascular endothelial cells died and causing atrophy of microvessels. This will cause local hypoxia between tissues and cause inflammatory reactions. Hypoxia induces the expression of TGF-β, which leads to fibroblast transformation into myofibroblast, increases ECM production, and causes fibrosis. Renal tubular epithelial cells may encounter cell cycle arrest, apoptosis, autophagy, and finally shrink during renal fibrosisBack to article page