Table 1 Summary of the epidemiological studies on the association between PM/airborne pollution and onset/prognosis of dementia

PM2.5

1,807,133

Male (44.91%); Female (55.09%)

Canada

65 years and older

A validated algorithm combines relevant physician claims, hospital admissions and prescription drug use

Onset of dementia

(hazard ratio 1.016)

[35]

PM2.5 (from residential wood burning/

vehicle exhaust)

1806

Male (773); Female (1033)

Sweden

55–85 years

Health questionnaire and cognitive evaluation

Onset of dementia (hazard ratio 1.55)

[34]

PM2.5

-

Male and female

Europe

55–80 + years old

Exposure–response functions

The incidence of dementia

[36]

PM2.5

6485

Female

America

65–79 years

WHIMS; the Modified MMSE; cranial computerized axial tomography scan and laboratory blood tests

Racial/ethnic disparities in AD risk

[37]

PM2.5

18,178

Male 8845 (48.7%); Female 9333 (51.3%)

America

75.8 ± 6.3 years

Amyloid PET scan, MMSE

Aβ plaques

[61]

PM2.5

2,022,647 person-years

Study group: Female (58.9%); Control group: Female (55.0%)

America

65 + years

Health data obtained from the State Center for Health Statistics and the Healthcare Cost and Utilization Project

Mortality of AD

[38]

PM2.5

83,343

Cases: Male (72%); Female (28%)

Controls: Male (60%); Female (40%)

America

12–92 years

Follow-up interviews

Parkinson's disease risk

[72]