Table 2 Nano-size materials used in fungal detection
From: Diagnosis of invasive fungal infections: challenges and recent developments
Fungal strain | Material | Methodology used | Outcome | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
C. albicans | Carbon Nanotubes | • Developed biosensor based on a carbon nanotube field-effect transistor (FET) to detect pathogenic yeasts even at low concentrations • Monoclonal anti-Candida antibodies were adsorbed onto the single wall carbon nanotube (SWCNT) to provide specific binding sites for fungal antigens • Upon interaction between antibody and antigen, the FET device displays change in electrical current | • FET device displayed stable sensor response for more than 10 days • Able to detect as low as 50 CFU/mL of C. albicans and that too only in 1 h | Villamizar et al. [211] |
Phytophthora cactorum | Nanoparticles of TiO2 or SnO2 | • Nanoparticles of TiO2 or SnO2 on screen-printed carbon (SP) electrodes were fabricated • These metal oxide nanoparticle-modified electrodes were used for amperometric detection of a volatile compound p-ethyl guaiacol indicating presence of Phytophthora | • Metal oxide nanoparticle modified electrodes showed high sensitivity and low detection limit (35–62 nM) for the detection of p-ethyl guaiacol along with high repeatability | Fang et al. [222] |
Mucor circinelloides | Nanocoating with gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) | • Presented a novel concept of cell nanocoating • Use of specific markers (fungal or bacterial) to induce nanocoating of AuNPs based on reduction of disulfide bonds • Induction of plasmonic AuNPs nanocoating after interaction with cell surface markers (using surface molecules, including disulfide- bond-containing (Dsbc) proteins and chitin) upon addition of reducing agent • Use of plasmonics and fluorescence as transduction methods | • Rapid microbial screening using specific cell nanocoating by targeting surface molecules on the microbial surface • Detection in a short time (5–30 min) • Detection can be performed with the naked eye or using a hand-held fluorometer (limit of detection was 35–1500 CFU/mL) | Xu et al. [223] |
A. niger, Aspergillus oryzae, Penicillium chrysogenum and Mucor hiemalis | Plasmonic AuNPs | • Developed a protocol to formulate AuNPs that upon reaction with specific spore forming fungi, causing changes in shape and morphology of AUNPs resulting in visible changes in color | • High sensitivity (80%) and 95% specificity with detection limit of 10 CFU/mL • Easy and simple readout (color change) with naked eye • Useful for rapid detection of fungal spores for hygiene control and self-diagnosis | Sojinrin et al. [224] |
Aspergillus niger, Penicillium chrysogenum, Alternaria alternata | Fluorescent Carbon-Dots thin film | • Developed a novel method i.e. CDs-based thin film as a sensor for detection of fungal spores • The thin film of carbon dots deposited on quartz plates was achieved using the Blodgett technique • To test CDs in the thin film form as a sensor, 12 thin films were arranged in the enclosed box at different locations and A. niger the repetitive model fungus • The interaction between CDs and A. niger fungus caused changes in the fluorescence emission properties of CDs that was captured | • Easy fabrication, low cost, high stability, economical for rapid detection of fungal growth and spores | Gaikwad et al. [213] |
C. albicans, C. tropicalis, and C. krusei | Magnetic nanoparticles | • Developed a protocol for direct identification of Candida from serum • For this, magnetic microspheres (Fe3O4) were modified by polyethylenimine (PEI) to form Fe3O4@PEI • The team then prepared positively charged silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) as the substrate for surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) • Candida was directly identified from serum by SERS detection | • Direct rapid and non-destructive detection of Candida under non-culture conditions from serum sample • Test completed within 40 min) • Test accuracy close to 99.8% | Hu et al. [225] |
A. niger | Peptide modified AuNPs | • A. niger spore-binding peptide ligand identified by phage display screening • AuNPs modified with a specific binding peptide • Peptide modified AuNPs when bind to A. niger spores show aggregation and a rapid visible change in the color | Rapid (< 10 min) sensitive (as low as 50 spores) detection of fungal spores | Lee et al. [226] |