Fig. 3

Biomarkers for cell-based immunotherapy. Biomarkers have emerged as invaluable tools in the realm of immunology and cancer therapy, playing a pivotal role in predicting several critical aspects of the immune response. Specifically, these biomarkers have found widespread application in forecasting immune cell exhaustion, a state where immune cells lose their functionality and become less effective in combating diseases. Moreover, they contribute to the anticipation of immune cell differentiation, providing insights into how immune cells transform into specialized subsets with distinct functions. Biomarkers are also instrumental in predicting the onset of cytokine release syndrome (CRS), a potentially severe immune-related side effect of certain therapies. Additionally, they aid in the assessment of the tumor microenvironment (TME), offering crucial information about the dynamic interplay between immune cells and the tumor, which is indispensable for designing personalized and effective treatment strategies