Table 1 Functions of EVs and their cargoes released by different cells in TME

Cancer cells

Mutant KRAS

Cancer cells

Aggressive↑

[135]

EGFRvIII

Cancer cells

Drug resistance↑

[136]

MDR1

Cancer cells

Drug resistance↑

[137]

HSP70

NK cells

Cytolytic activity↑

[138]

Tumor antigens

DCs

Cross-presentation↑

[139]

PD-L1

CD8 T cells

Apoptosis↑

[143, 144]

FasL

CD8 T cells

Apoptosis↑

[145]

TRAIL

CD8 T cells

Apoptosis↑

[146]

NKG2D

CD8 T cells, NK cells

Cytotoxicity↓

[147]

HSP72

MDSCs

Immunosuppression↑

[148]

miRNAs, lncRNAs

M2 macrophages

Immunosuppression↑

[149]

TGF-β1

Treg

Treg differentiation↑

[150]

TGF-β1

Fibroblasts

CAF activation↑

[151]

DCs

TNF, FasL, TRAIL

NK cells

IFNγ secretion↑

[153]

Tumor antigens

B cells

Proliferation IgG production↑

[154]

Tumor antigens

CD8 T cells

CD8 T cell activation↑

[154]

NK cells

Perforin, granulysin, granzyme

Cancer cells

Apoptosis↑

[155]

γδ T cells

NKG2D, FasL, TNFα, IFNγ, perforin

Cancer cells

Tumor growth↓

[156]

M1 macrophages

M1 marker mRNA

M2 macrophages

M2 → M1 Repolarization↑

[157]

Tumor antigens

CD8 T cells

CD8 T cell activation↑

[158]

M2 macrophages

miRNAs

Cancer cells

Tumor progression↑

[160]

MDSCs

miRNAs

Cancer cells

Tumor growth↑

[161]

TNF⍺, FasL

CD8 T cells

Activation-induced cell death (AICD)↑

[164]

CD47, TSP1, S100A8/9

MDSCs

MDSCs Recruitment↑

[165, 166]

Treg

CD73

CD8 T cells

CD8 T cell activation↓

[167]

B cells

CD73

CD8 T cells

CD8 T cell activation↓

[122]

CAFs

SHH

Cancer cells

Aggressive↑

[169]

miRNAs

Cancer cells

Proliferation and metastasis↑

[170]

miRNAs

Cancer cells

Chemo- or radio-resistance↑

[171,172,173]

metabolites

Cancer cells

Metabolic reprogramming↑

[174]

circRNA

Cancer cells

PD-L1 expression↑

[175]

MSCs

miRNAs

Cancer cells

Proliferation↑

[178]

miRNAs

M2 macrophages

M2 polarization↑

[178]

PD-L1, CD73, TGF-β1

CD8 T cells

Immunosuppression↑

[179]